When trying to apply the solid knowledge of quantum field theory to actual LHC physics - in particular to the Higgs sector and certain regimes of QCD - one inevitably meets a
Lead-free Solders: Materials Reliability for Electronics provides a comprehensive understanding of the current state of lead-free electronic interconnects research from fundamental, applied, and manufacturing perspectives.
Taal / Language : English
Inhoudsopgave:
Series Preface xv
Preface xvii
List of Contributors xix
Thematic Area I: Introduction 1
1 Reliability of Lead-Free Electronic Solder Interconnects:
Roles of Material and Service Parameters 3
K. N. Subramanian
1.1 Material Design for Reliable Lead-Free Electronic Solders Joints 3
1.2 Imposed Fields and the Solder Joint Responses that Affect
Their Reliability 5
1.3 Mechanical Integrity 5
1.4 Thermomechanical Fatigue (TMF) 6
1.5 Whisker Growth 7
1.6 Electromigration (EM) 7
1.7 Thermomigration (TM) 8
1.8 Other Potential Issues 8
Thematic Area II: Phase Diagrams and Alloying Concepts 11
2 Phase Diagrams and their Applications in Pb-Free Soldering 13
Sinn-wen Chen, Wojciech Gierlotka, Hsin-jay Wu, and Shih-kang Lin
2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Phase Diagrams of Pb-Free Solder Systems 14
2.3 Example of Applications 28
2.3.1 General Applications (Melting, Solidification,
Interfacial Reactions) 28
2.3.2 Effective Undercooling Reduction (Co Addition) 32
2.3.3 Unexpected Compound Formation (Sn-Ag/Cu
Interfacial Reactions) 33
2.3.4 Unexpected Growth Rates (Sn-Bi/Fe and Sn-Pb/Fe) 34
2.3.5 Unexpected Melting of Solder (Sn-Sb/Ag) 36
2.3.6 Uphill Diffusion (Sn-Cu/Ni) 38
2.3.7 Limited Sn Supply (Au/Sn/Cu) 40
2.4 Conclusions 42
Acknowledgment 42
References 42
3 Phase Diagrams and Alloy Development 47
Alan Dinsdale, Andy Watson, Ales Kroupa, Jan Vrestal,
Adela Zemanova, and Pavel Broz
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Computational Thermodynamics as a Research Tool 50
3.2.1 Concept of the Calculation of Phase Diagrams for Multicomponent Systems 50
3.2.2 Modelling of the Gibbs Energy of the System 52
3.2.3 Critical Assessment of Thermodynamic Properties 53
3.3 Thermodynamic Databases - the Underlying Basis of the
Modelling of Phase Diagrams and Thermodynamic Properties, Databases for Lead-Free Solders 53
3.3.1 Creation of the Thermodynamic Databases 54
3.3.2 Three Conditions of Consistency 54
3.3.3 Specialized Databases for the Modelling of Thermodynamic
Properties of Systems Relevant for Lead-Free Solders 56
3.4 Application of the SOLDERS Database to Alloy Development 59
3.4.1 Modelling of Phase Diagrams and Thermodynamic Properties 60
3.4.2 Modelling of Other Properties 67
3.5 Conclusions 70
References 70
4 Interaction of Sn-based Solders with Ni(P) Substrates: Phase Equilibria and Thermochemistry 73
Clemens Schmetterer, Rajesh Ganesan, and Herbert Ipser
4.1 Introduction 74
4.2 Binary Phase Equilibria 75
4.2.1 Literature Overview 75
4.2.2 New Experimental Results 79
4.3 Ternary Phase Equilibria Ni-P-Sn 87
4.3.1 Literature Overview 87
4.3.2 Experimental Results 88
4.4 Thermochemical Data 96
4.4.1 Literature Overview 97
4.4.2 New Experimental Results 101
4.5 Relevance of the Results and Conclusion 113
Acknowledgments 115
References 115
Thematic Area III: Microalloying to Improve Reliability 121
5 `Effects of Minor Alloying Additions on the Properties and Reliability of Pb-Free Solders and Joints` 123
Sung K. Kang
5.1 Introduction 124
5.2 Controlling Ag3Sn Plate Formation 127
5.3 Controlling the Undercooling of Sn Solidification 134
5.4 Controlling Interfacial Reactions 138
5.4.1 Dissolution of UBM and Surface Finishes 139
5.4.2 Cu-Sn Intermetallic Formation 140
5.4.3 Interfacial Void Formation 145
5.4.4 Spalling of Ni-Sn Intermetallics 146
5.5 Modifying the Microstructure of SAC 147
5.6 Improving Mechanical Properties 151
5.6.1 Strength and Hardness 151
5.6.2 Drop Impact Resistance 152
5.6.3 Thermal Fatigue Resistance 152
5.7 Enhancing Electromigration Resistance 153
5.8 Summary 155
References 156
6 Development and Characterization of Nano-composite Solder 163
Johan Liu, Si Chen, and and Lilei Ye
6.1 Introduction 164
6.2 Nano-composite Solder Fabrication Process 164
6.2.1 Nano-particle Fabrication 164
6.2.2 Nano-composite Solder Fabrication 165
6.3 Microstructure 168
6.3.1 Grain Size 168
6.3.2 IMC Layer 169
6.4 Physical Properties 169
6.4.1 Viscosity 169
6.4.2 Melting Point 170
6.4.3 Wettability 170
6.4.4 CTE 170
6.4.5 Density and Young`s Modulus 171
6.5 Mechanical Properties 171
6.5.1 Microhardness 171
6.5.2 Creep Resistance 172
6.5.3 Mechanical Strength 172
6.5.4 Ductility 172
6.6 Challenges and Solutions 173
6.7 Summary 176
6.8 Acknowledgements 177
References 178
Thematic Area IV: Chemical Issues Affecting Reliability 181
7 Chemical Changes for Lead-Free Soldering and their Effect on Reliability 183
Laura J. Turbini
7.1 Introduction 183
7.2 Soldering Fluxes and Pastes 183
7.3 Cleaning 187
7.4 Laminates 187
7.5 Halogen-Free Laminates 188
7.5.1 Z-axis CTE 189
7.5.2 Interconnect Stress Test (IST) 189
7.5.3 Time to Delamination 189
7.5.4 Temperature to Decomposition 190
7.6 Conductive Anodic Filament (CAF) Formation 191
7.7 Summary 195
References 195
Thematic Area V: Mechanical Issues Affecting Reliability 197
8 Influence of Microstructure on Creep and High Strain Rate Fracture of Sn-Ag-Based Solder Joints 199
P. Kumar, Z. Huang, I. Dutta, G. Subbarayan, and R. Mahajan
8.1 Introduction 200
8.2 Coarsening Kinetics: Quantitative Analysis of Microstructural Evolution 201
8.2.1 Experimental Procedure 201
8.2.2 Results and Discussion 202
8.3 Creep Behavior of Sn-Ag-Based Solders and the Effect of Aging 208
8.3.1 Experimental Procedure 208
8.3.2 Results and Discussion 209
8.4 Role of Microstructure on High Strain Rate Fracture 221
8.4.1 Experimental and Analytical Procedure 222
8.4.2 Results and Discussion 224
8.5 Summary and Conclusions 229
Acknowledgments 229
References 230
9 Microstructure and Thermomechanical Behavior Pb-Free Solders 235
D.R. Frear
9.1 Introduction 235
9.2 Sn-Pb Solder 236
9.3 Pb-Free Solders 239
9.3.1 Pb-Free Solders Microstructure 240
9.3.2 Interfacial Intermetallic Formation of Pb-Free Solders 242
9.3.3 Mechanical Metallurgy of Pb-Free Solder Alloys 245
9.3.4 Thermomechanical Fatigue Behavior of Pb-Free
Solder Alloys 247
9.4 Summary 250
References 251
10 Electromechanical Coupling in Sn-Rich Solder Interconnects 253
Q.S. Zhu, H.Y. Liu, L. Zhang, Q.L. Zeng, Z.G. Wang, and J.K. Shang
10.1 Introduction 254
10.2 Experimental 255
10.3 Results 257
10.3.1 Surface Morphology of Sn-3.5Ag-0.7Cu Interconnects after Electromigration 257
10.3.2 Surface Morphology of Pure Sn Interconnect after
Electromigration 258
10.3.3 Surface Morphology of Single-Crystal Sn Interconnect after Electromigration 259
10.3.4 Tensile Strength of Solder Interconnects after
Electromigration 260
10.3.5 Stress-Relaxation Behavior of Solder Interconnects After Electromigration 262
10.4 Discussion 266
10.4.1 Stress Induced by Vacancy Concentration at the Grain Boundary 266
10.4.2 Compression Stress Induced by the Cu6Sn5 Formation on the Surface 267
10.4.3 Vacancy-Concentration Distribution after Current Stressing 268
10.4.4 Effect of High Vacancy Concentration on Strength 269
10.4.5 Effect of High Vacancy Concentration on Stress-Relaxation Rate 270
10.5 Conclusions 271
Acknowledgment 272
References 272
11 Effect of Temperature-Dependent Deformation Characteristics on
Thermomechanical Fatigue Reliability of Eutectic Sn-Ag Solder Joints 275
Andre Lee, Deep Choudhuri, and K.N. Subramanian
11.1 Introduction 276
11.2 Experimental Details 277
11.2.1 Test-Specimen Preparation 277
11.2.2 Thermal Cycling 277
11.2.3 Microstructural Characterization 278
11.2.4 Mechanical Testing 278
11.3 Results and Discussion 278
11.3.1 Effects of Temperature 279
11.3.2 Effects of Strain Rate 285
11.3.3 Influence of Temperature Regime of TMF on the Residual Mechanical Properties 288
11.3.4 Effect of Temperature Regime of TMF on Surface-Damage Accumulation 291
11.3.5 Evolution of Microstructural Damages during Low-Temperature Regime TMF 293
11.4 Summary and Conclusions 296
References 297
Thematic Area VI: Whisker Growth Issues Affecting Reliability 299
12 Sn Whiskers: Causes, Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies 301
Nitin Jadhav and Eric Chason
12.1 Introduction 301
12.2 Features of Whisker Formation 305
12.3 Understanding the Relationship between IMC Growth, Stress and Whisker Formation 310
12.4 Summary Picture of Whisker Formation 316
12.5 Strategies to Mitigate Whisker Formation 318
12.6 Conclusion 320
Acknowledgment 320
References 320
13 Tin Whiskers 325
Katsuaki Suganuma
13.1 Low Melting Point Metals and Whisker Formation 325
13.2 Room-Temperature Tin Whiskers on Copper Substrate 327
13.3 Thermal-Cycling Whiskers on 42 Alloy/Ceramics 328
13.4 Oxidation/Corrosion Whiskers 331
13.5 Mechanical-Compression Whiskers in Connectors 332
13.6 Electromigration Whiskers 333
13.7 Whisker Mitigation 334
13.8 Future Work 336
References 336
Thematic Area VII: Electromigration Issues Affecting Reliability 339
14 Electromigration Reliability of Pb-Free Solder Joints 341
Seung-Hyun Chae, Yiwei Wang, and Paul S. Ho
14.1 Introduction 341
14.2 Failure Mechanisms of Solder Joints by Forced Atomic Migration 344
14.2.1 EM 344
14.2.2 TM 349
14.3 IMC Growth 353
14.3.1 Under Thermal Aging 353
14.3.2 Under Current Stressing 360
14.4 Effect of Sn Grain Structure on EM Reliability 365
14.5 Summary 368
Acknowledgment 371
References 371
15 Electromigration in Pb-Free Solder Joints in Electronic Packaging 377
Chih Chen, Shih-Wei Liang, Yuan-Wei Chang, Hsiang-Yao Hsiao, Jung Kyu Han, and K.N. Tu
15.1 Introduction 378
15.2 Unique Features for EM in Flip-Chip Pb-Free Solder Joints 378
15.2.1 Serious Current-Crowding Effect 379
15.2.2 Joule Heating and Nonuniform Temperature Distribution
During EM 380
15.2.3 Effect of Current Crowding and Joule Heating on EM Failure 384
15.2.4 Thermomigration in Solder Joints 387
15.3 Changes of Physical Properties of Solder Bumps During EM 388
15.3.1 Electrical Resistance 388
15.3.2 Temperature Redistribution 392
15.3.3 Mechanical Properties: Electromigration-Induced Brittleness in Solder Joints 393
15.4 Challenges for Understanding EM in Pb-Free Solder Microbumps 395
15.4.1 Fast Dissolution of Cu and Ni Under EM 395
15.4.2 Effect of Grain Orientation on Electromigration 395
15.4.3 Stress in Solder Bumps 395
15.5 Thermomigration of Cu and Ni in Pb-Free Solder Microbumps 396
15.6 Summary 396
Acknowledgements 397
References 397
16 Effects of Electromigration on Electronic Solder Joints 403
Sinn-wen Chen, Chih-ming Chen, Chao-hong Wang, and Chia-ming Hsu
16.1 Introduction 403
16.2 Effects of Electromigration on Solders 404
16.2.1 Solder Joints with Primarily only one Moving Species 405
16.2.2 Solder Joints with Significant Hillock and Void Formation 406
16.2.3 Solder Joints with Phase Segregation 407
16.3 Effects of Electromigration on Interfacial Reactions 410
16.3.1 Asymmetric IMC Layer Growth (Electron from Solder to
Substrate: Enhancement, Electron from Substrate to Solder: Suppression) 410
16.3.2 Asymmetric IMC Layer Growth (Electron from Solder to
Substrate: Suppression, Electron from Substrate to Solder:
Enhancement): Peltier Effect 411
16.3.3 Symmetric IMC Layer Growth (Cathode and Anode:
Enhancement or Suppression) 413
16.3.4 No Effect with Passage of Electric Current 413
16.3.5 Effects of Electromigration on Reaction Phases: Evolution of
Reaction Phase and Alternating Layer Formation 413
16.3.6 Microstructural Changes Caused by Electromigration 414
16.4 Modeling Description of Effects of Electromigration on IMC Growth 416
16.4.1 The Atomic Flux Summation Model 416
16.4.2 The Atomic Flux Summation with Stress Modification Model 417
16.4.3 Generalized Modeling for Growth of IMC Layer 418
16.5 Conclusions 420
Acknowledgements 420
References 420
Thematic Area VIII: Thermomigration Issues Affecting Reliability 425
17 Thermomigration in SnPb and Pb-Free Flip-Chip Solder Joints 427
Tian Tian, K.N. Tu, Hsiao-Yun Chen, Hsiang-Yao Hsiao, and Chih Chen
17.1 Introduction 427
17.2 Thermomigration in SnPb Flip-Chip Solder Joints 429
17.2.1 Thermomigration in Unpowered Composite SnPb
Solder Joints 429
17.2.2 In-Situ Observation of Thermomigration in Composite
SnPb Solder Joints 431
17.2.3 Thermomigration in Unpowered Eutectic SnPb Solder Joints 433
17.3 Thermomigration in Pb-Free Flip-Chip Solder Joints 434
17.3.1 Thermomigration of Cu and Ni in Pb-Free Flip-Chip Solder Joints 437
17.4 Driving Force of Thermomigration 437
17.4.1 Irreversible Processes of Thermomigration 440
17.5 Coupling between Thermomigration and Creep 441
17.6 Coupling Between Thermomigration and Electromigration:
Thermoelectric Effect on Electromigration 443
17.7 Summary 443
Acknowledgment 444
References 444
Thematic Area IX: Miniaturization Issues Affecting Reliability 445
18 Influence of Miniaturization on Mechanical Reliability of Lead-Free Solder Interconnects 447
Golta Khatibi, Herbert Ipser, Martin Lederer, and Brigitte Weiss
18.1 Introduction 447
18.2 Effect of Miniaturization on Static Properties of Solder Joints
(Tensile and Shear) 450
18.2.1 Constraint and Geometry Effects in Model Joints 450
18.2.2 Constraining Effects in Actual Joints 468
18.2.3 Fracture Mechanics Considerations of Solder Joints 475
18.3 Creep and Relaxation of Solder Joints 477
18.4 Summary and Conclusions 480
References 484
Index 489
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